Neanderthals: Subspecies or Separate Species Than Humans?
What does the current research say about Neanderthals and Homo Sapiens? Are Neanderthals considered a subspecies of humans, or does science classify them as a separate species. What does the evidence say?
The latest research proves humans now have a small percentage of Homo Neanderthal’s DNA. David Reich, a geneticist at Harvard Medical School, redrew the species’ family tree. Starting with a pair of lines, one representing humans and the other Neanderthals originated and split off from a common ancestor no more than 700,000 years ago. The human branch divides into lineages of Africans, Asians, Europeans, and other races. Instead of making new branches, Reich started connecting them together. His theory was that about 200,000 years ago, our ancestors evolved in East Africa. They spread throughout the rest of the continent and moved out into Asia and Europe. As they journeyed along coastlines they encountered Neanderthals and other human relatives. (Zimmer, 2013)
Are Neanderthals Subspecies or Separate Species? Even though Neanderthals share many similarities with humans they are a separate species. They looked alike only Neanderthals were shorter, more heavily built and much stronger, particularly in the arms and hands. Their skulls show they had no chin and their foreheads sloped backwards. The brain case was lower but longer, housing a slightly larger brain than modern humans. (BBC, 2013)
How is it possible humans have some DNA similarities to the Neanderthals? There is a lot of controversy. For example, David Reich suggests interbreeding is the reason why traces of Neanderthal DNA can be found in people today, especially Europeans. Reich states “As they journeyed along coastlines and over mountains, they encountered Neanderthals and other human relatives. And at least once in a while, they had sex.” (Zimmer, 2013) Others believed that the genetic link is due to Neanderthals and modern humans having a common ancestor, which may have lived in North Africa. (The Guardian, 2013) In other words, the Neanderthals probably never mated with the Homo sapiens, but because of their common ancestor they have DNA similarities. Whether the Neanderthals mated or did not mate with humans they still share resemblances that can be witnessed today.
References:
Zimmer, Carl. "Interbreeding With Neanderthals " Discover. N.p., 04 Mar 2013. Web.
Researchers have studied the Neanderthals, a species close in physique and brain size to modern humans. They dominated Europe, but disappeared after humans appeared from our African homeland, 60,000 years ago. There was a long and gradual takeover by modern humans. Results from the research program show that modern humans arrived before than estimated and that Neanderthals disappeared earlier than researchers thought. Careful dating of finds across Europe say that Homo Sapiens could have reached Europe 45,000 years ago. Five thousand years later, Neanderthals had disappeared. The Neanderthals had the inability to adapt to climate change, competitive exclusion, or genocide by encroaching anatomically modern humans, who arrived in Europe after Neanderthals had settled there. Neanderthal hybridization with early modern human populations is also considered a hypothesis, and there is genetic evidence to support the idea that this occurred to some extent. Neanderthals are usually classified as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis a subspecies of humans, in recognition of consistent differences such as heavy brow ridges, a long low skull, a robust skeleton, and others. The differences between Homo Sapiens and Neanderthals are very bid to separate them as different species. Evolutionists last century claimed that these were real differences between us and Neanderthals, and they were right. Differences such as various diseases or environmental factors.
What does the research say about Neanderthals and Homo sapiens? Are Neanderthals a subspecies of us or are they considered a different species. Provide the evidence from your research
Neanderthals are considered a subspecies of Homo sapiens. According to research “They are closely related to modern humans, differing in DNA by only 0.3%, just twice the variability across contemporary humans.” (1) If you observe the skeleton remains of a Mounted Neanderthal, you can see the incredible similarities compared to the human skeleton. Researchers first discovered their bone fossils in 1856 in a cave in Germany and ever since there have been many theories regarding the relation that humans may have had with this subspecies.
“Neanderthals may have been interbreeding with some of the ancestors of modern Eurasians as recently as 37,000 years ago. And another recent study found that Asian and South American people possess an even greater percentage of Neanderthal genes.” (2) These findings are very important because this means that humans do have a close relationship to Neanderthals in terms of physical traits, including some DNA similarities. Although religious experts most likely will try to differ, scientifically it is impossible to deny the closeness. "It's increasingly difficult to point to any one thing that Neanderthals did and Homo sapiens didn't do and vice versa," said John Shea, an archaeologist at Stony Brook University in New York. (2)
According to specialist early Homo sapiens and Neanderthals began to interbreed and this caused that many modern humans in Africa have not only similar physical characteristics but also genetic traits. "This [interbreeding] could have been a really powerful mechanism for humans to adapt as they moved into Eurasia," said Sriram Sankararaman, a statistical geneticist at Harvard Medical School and the lead author of the PLOS Genetics study. (2)
In conclusion, I believe that evidence suggests and proves that Neanderthals were a subspecies of the modern day humans ( Homo sapiens). They are in some way our ancestors, even though religious books may still stick to Adam and Eve, it proves hard to contradict these scientific findings.
Neanderthals: Subspecies or Separate Species Than Humans?
Neanderthals and Humans are not related. Although it is believed that humans and neanderthals did interbreed, there is no clear answer and some people might say they did and some that they did not. A scientific called Erik Trinhaus (1) stated that the two species did interbreed, but his theory was discarded in 2010 when studies found out that neanderthals DNA is 99.7 percent the same as humans. Another question remains up to this day. Why did neanderthals go extinct and we did not? (1) No one knows for sure but some scholars say that a gradual or extreme change in climate caused the extinction of such animals. Others however, say that humans killed neanderthals. There is no clear information but further studies on DNA may reveal the truth. 37,000 years ago, Europeans interbedded with neanderthals in Europe, a study has found (2). Scientists from Harvard investigated why neanderthals are closer to peoples who live outside of África. Studies show that Europeans share 1-4 percent of their genes with neanderthals (2). Although concrete proofs might not be completely revealed to us yet, I personally think that neanderthals are not the same species that we are, but they were definitely interbedded with us in the past. More information is needed to find out how closely related we are for sure.
1) Neanderthals : Facts About Our Extinct Human Relatives, Jessie Szalay, Livescience Contributor. http://www.livescience.com/28036-neanderthals-facts-about-our-extinct-human-relatives.html
2) Neanderthals 'bred with modern humans in Europe as recently as 37,000 years ago, Damien Gayle. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2213219/Neanderthals-bred-modern-humans-Europe-recently-37-000-years-ago.html
Neanderthals are an extinct species of the genus Homus that existed in Eurasia 200,000 to 30,000, although fossil evidence suggest that the first Neanderthal could have been found in Europe as early as 500,000 years ago. Same as humans, Neanderthals originated in Africa, but migrated to Europe before them. They were shorter and stockier than humans, which helped them, as they lived during the Ice Age. They built fires, had tools, had an advanced social life (even burying their dead), and hunted bigger prey. This contradicts the general perception that they were slow, brutish proto-humans, as usually depicted in modern popular culture.
Neanderthal and humans shared the Earth for a time. It has been suggested that the two could have interbred, which would account for 2.5% of the genome still found in modern man, particularly of non-African descent, is made up of Neanderthal DNA. However, there is debate going on based on DNA evidence show that the DNA contribution to the human gene is due to a common ancestor, not to interbreeding, as thought before.
This would mean that although initially thought to be a separate species of the same genus (Homo neanderthalalensis), it is now believed that it is a subspecies of homo sapiens (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis).
Looking at the DNA evidence, we can see that Neanderthals are the closest relative to modern humans, sharing 99.7% of the DNA. This leads to the two sides of the debate. 1. Furthermore, recent DNA studies suggest that both Neanderthals and humans could shared a common ancestor. This is based on bones found in Spain have found that they lived there at different times, and could not have interbred. 2. As Africans have no Neanderthals DNA and non Africans do, interbreeding could have occurred after the human migration to Europe, and so account for the 2.5% DNA component.
Neanderthals are an extinct species of the genus Homo, which is shared with us (Homo sapiens). In fact, they are one of our closest relatives; paleontologists have reconstructed and put together various pieces of the DNA puzzle to get a look at our evolution history. Which results in the continuation of the unanswered question of who our last common ancestor with Neanderthals was specifically, but it does give us an average of the date of existence, a range between 800,000 years ago to less than 300,000 (1). A lot of this was accomplished through the study of ancient teeth, like premolars and molars, since these have specific landmarks that are easier to spot and classify and ‘store’ (1). The fossilized tartar on their teeth was proof they consumed vegetables and used bitter-tasting medicinal plants, like chamomile and yarrow; or at least consumed an animal that did (11). Yet it was very informing being able to distinguish the contents of their stomach through the residual in their teeth (11). Not only could that be determined from simply looking deeply into their dental record, but their habits as well. An example would be how they used toothpicks to clean residuals and even to release pain caused by gum disease, which can be backed by even toothpick marks (2)! This intriguing species was discovered about 150 years ago and most of the information gathered about them was found in the meeting point of Africa and Eurasia and it’s concentrated mainly on the cultural background, their evolution, associated behavior, and material culture (5). Like their common use of stone and bone tools, assymetricality on artifacts, which indicates a majority existence of right-handiness, yet another spooky similarity with us (3). As part of evidence for constant evolution, behavior, and cultural background is the occurrence of burials and placement of marine shell beads and other organic, mineral, and skeletal artifacts placed on top of the burial place (7). This custom clearly shows the advancement of symbolic expression in Neanderthals, which I find quite astonishing.
Neanderthals are so closely related that it is believed that we interbreed, and some evidence was found in Papua New Guinea, inside the DNA of living humans there is an archaic admixture of Neanderthal and Denisova genomes (4). Even recent studies have found that 2-3% of the genome of non-Africans might find its source back to Neanderthals, which most likely happened during the spread out of Africa (10). This hypothesis could easily be proven by testing the populations who mostly obtained the genome, those being Europeans and Asians (10). Its been hypothesized that due to climate changes and the decrease in productivity throughout MIS 4, or level of Marine isotope stage (warm and cool periods in Earth as results from changes in oxygen combined with data from deep sea core samples), are the reasons for the decline and eventual disappearance of Neanderthals (6). Another explanation would be massive volcanic eruptions, which has been tested through the search for volcanic ash not visible at first sight inside caves (9). In conclusion, scientists have come to believe it was a combination of both volcanic activity and intense climate changes, plus the competition and clear threat posed by more developed indigenous populations (9).
Bibliography: 1. Article-National Geographic, Brian Switek. October 21, 2013. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/10/131021-neanderthal-human-evolution-teeth/ 2. Article-National Geographic, Stefan Sirucek. October 23, 2013. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/neanderthal-gums-relieved-by-toothpicks/ 3. Book-Natalie T. Uomini, 2011. http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-007-0415-2_14 4. Article-Volume 91, Issue 2, pages 265-274; Fernando L. Mendez, Joseph C. Watkins, and Michael F. Hammer. August 10, 2012. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929712003242 5. Book-Naama Goren-Inbar. 2011. http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-007-0492-3_8#page-1 6. Unknown-volume 30, issues 21-22, Miriam Belmaker and Erella Hovers. October 2011. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027737911100237X 7. Research Article-Veronique Laroulandie, 2011. http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0032856 8. Research Article-Clive Finlayson, Joaquin Rodriguez-Vidal, Francisca Martines-Ruiz, etc. September 14, 2011. http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0024026 9. Article-PNAS, John Lowe, Nick Barton, Paul Albert, etc, June 18, 2012. http://www.pnas.org/content/109/34/13532.short 10. Article-PNAS, Mathias Currat and Laurent Excoffier, August 3, 2011. http://www.pnas.org/content/108/37/15129.short 11. Article-The Observer, Robin McKle, October 20, 2013. http://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/oct/20/neanderthals-diet-plants-herbs-stomachs
The latest research proves humans now have a small percentage of Homo Neanderthal’s DNA. David Reich, a geneticist at Harvard Medical School, redrew the species’ family tree. Starting with a pair of lines, one representing humans and the other Neanderthals originated and split off from a common ancestor no more than 700,000 years ago. The human branch divides into lineages of Africans, Asians, Europeans, and other races. Instead of making new branches, Reich started connecting them together. His theory was that about 200,000 years ago, our ancestors evolved in East Africa. They spread throughout the rest of the continent and moved out into Asia and Europe. As they journeyed along coastlines they encountered Neanderthals and other human relatives. (Zimmer, 2013)
ReplyDeleteAre Neanderthals Subspecies or Separate Species? Even though Neanderthals share many similarities with humans they are a separate species. They looked alike only Neanderthals were shorter, more heavily built and much stronger, particularly in the arms and hands. Their skulls show they had no chin and their foreheads sloped backwards. The brain case was lower but longer, housing a slightly larger brain than modern humans. (BBC, 2013)
How is it possible humans have some DNA similarities to the Neanderthals? There is a lot of controversy. For example, David Reich suggests interbreeding is the reason why traces of Neanderthal DNA can be found in people today, especially Europeans. Reich states “As they journeyed along coastlines and over mountains, they encountered Neanderthals and other human relatives. And at least once in a while, they had sex.” (Zimmer, 2013) Others believed that the genetic link is due to Neanderthals and modern humans having a common ancestor, which may have lived in North Africa. (The Guardian, 2013) In other words, the Neanderthals probably never mated with the Homo sapiens, but because of their common ancestor they have DNA similarities. Whether the Neanderthals mated or did not mate with humans they still share resemblances that can be witnessed today.
References:
Zimmer, Carl. "Interbreeding With Neanderthals " Discover. N.p., 04 Mar 2013. Web.
http://discovermagazine.com/2013/march/14-interbreeding-neanderthals#.UnBfrqDsNAd
Switek, Brian. "Much Earlier Split for Neanderthals, Humans?" Daily News. National Geographic, 21 October 2013. Web.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/10/131021-neanderthal-human-evolution-teeth/
"Neanderthal." Natural Prehistoric Life. BBC, n.d, 2013 Web
http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Neanderthal
http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/species
Researchers have studied the Neanderthals, a species close in physique and brain size to modern humans. They dominated Europe, but disappeared after humans appeared from our African homeland, 60,000 years ago. There was a long and gradual takeover by modern humans. Results from the research program show that modern humans arrived before than estimated and that Neanderthals disappeared earlier than researchers thought. Careful dating of finds across Europe say that Homo Sapiens could have reached Europe 45,000 years ago. Five thousand years later, Neanderthals had disappeared. The Neanderthals had the inability to adapt to climate change, competitive exclusion, or genocide by encroaching anatomically modern humans, who arrived in Europe after Neanderthals had settled there. Neanderthal hybridization with early modern human populations is also considered a hypothesis, and there is genetic evidence to support the idea that this occurred to some extent.
ReplyDeleteNeanderthals are usually classified as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis a subspecies of humans, in recognition of consistent differences such as heavy brow ridges, a long low skull, a robust skeleton, and others. The differences between Homo Sapiens and Neanderthals are very bid to separate them as different species. Evolutionists last century claimed that these were real differences between us and Neanderthals, and they were right. Differences such as various diseases or environmental factors.
http://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/jun/02/why-did-neanderthals-die-out
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neanderthal_extinction_hypotheses
http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/a_neands.html
What does the research say about Neanderthals and Homo sapiens? Are Neanderthals a subspecies of us or are they considered a different species. Provide the evidence from your research
ReplyDeleteNeanderthals are considered a subspecies of Homo sapiens. According to research “They are closely related to modern humans, differing in DNA by only 0.3%, just twice the variability across contemporary humans.” (1) If you observe the skeleton remains of a Mounted Neanderthal, you can see the incredible similarities compared to the human skeleton. Researchers first discovered their bone fossils in 1856 in a cave in Germany and ever since there have been many theories regarding the relation that humans may have had with this subspecies.
“Neanderthals may have been interbreeding with some of the ancestors of modern Eurasians as recently as 37,000 years ago. And another recent study found that Asian and South American people possess an even greater percentage of Neanderthal genes.” (2) These findings are very important because this means that humans do have a close relationship to Neanderthals in terms of physical traits, including some DNA similarities. Although religious experts most likely will try to differ, scientifically it is impossible to deny the closeness. "It's increasingly difficult to point to any one thing that Neanderthals did and Homo sapiens didn't do and vice versa," said John Shea, an archaeologist at Stony Brook University in New York. (2)
According to specialist early Homo sapiens and Neanderthals began to interbreed and this caused that many modern humans in Africa have not only similar physical characteristics but also genetic traits. "This [interbreeding] could have been a really powerful mechanism for humans to adapt as they moved into Eurasia," said Sriram Sankararaman, a statistical geneticist at Harvard Medical School and the lead author of the PLOS Genetics study. (2)
In conclusion, I believe that evidence suggests and proves that Neanderthals were a subspecies of the modern day humans (
Homo sapiens). They are in some way our ancestors, even though religious books may still stick to Adam and Eve, it proves hard to contradict these scientific findings.
References
(1) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neanderthal
(2) http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/10/121012-neanderthals-science-paabo-dna-sex-breeding-humans/
Adrian V.
ReplyDeleteNeanderthals: Subspecies or Separate Species Than Humans?
Neanderthals and Humans are not related. Although it is believed that humans and neanderthals did interbreed, there is no clear answer and some people might say they did and some that they did not. A scientific called Erik Trinhaus (1) stated that the two species did interbreed, but his theory was discarded in 2010 when studies found out that neanderthals DNA is 99.7 percent the same as humans.
Another question remains up to this day. Why did neanderthals go extinct and we did not? (1) No one knows for sure but some scholars say that a gradual or extreme change in climate caused the extinction of such animals. Others however, say that humans killed neanderthals. There is no clear information but further studies on DNA may reveal the truth.
37,000 years ago, Europeans interbedded with neanderthals in Europe, a study has found (2). Scientists from Harvard investigated why neanderthals are closer to peoples who live outside of África. Studies show that Europeans share 1-4 percent of their genes with neanderthals (2).
Although concrete proofs might not be completely revealed to us yet, I personally think that neanderthals are not the same species that we are, but they were definitely interbedded with us in the past. More information is needed to find out how closely related we are for sure.
1) Neanderthals : Facts About Our Extinct Human Relatives, Jessie Szalay, Livescience Contributor. http://www.livescience.com/28036-neanderthals-facts-about-our-extinct-human-relatives.html
2) Neanderthals 'bred with modern humans in Europe as recently as 37,000 years ago, Damien Gayle. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2213219/Neanderthals-bred-modern-humans-Europe-recently-37-000-years-ago.html
Neanderthals are an extinct species of the genus Homus that existed in Eurasia 200,000 to 30,000, although fossil evidence suggest that the first Neanderthal could have been found in Europe as early as 500,000 years ago. Same as humans, Neanderthals originated in Africa, but migrated to Europe before them. They were shorter and stockier than humans, which helped them, as they lived during the Ice Age. They built fires, had tools, had an advanced social life (even burying their dead), and hunted bigger prey. This contradicts the general perception that they were slow, brutish proto-humans, as usually depicted in modern popular culture.
ReplyDeleteNeanderthal and humans shared the Earth for a time. It has been suggested that the two could have interbred, which would account for 2.5% of the genome still found in modern man, particularly of non-African descent, is made up of Neanderthal DNA. However, there is debate going on based on DNA evidence show that the DNA contribution to the human gene is due to a common ancestor, not to interbreeding, as thought before.
This would mean that although initially thought to be a separate species of the same genus (Homo neanderthalalensis), it is now believed that it is a subspecies of homo sapiens (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis).
Looking at the DNA evidence, we can see that Neanderthals are the closest relative to modern humans, sharing 99.7% of the DNA. This leads to the two sides of the debate.
1. Furthermore, recent DNA studies suggest that both Neanderthals and humans could shared a common ancestor. This is based on bones found in Spain have found that they lived there at different times, and could not have interbred.
2. As Africans have no Neanderthals DNA and non Africans do, interbreeding could have occurred after the human migration to Europe, and so account for the 2.5% DNA component.
Neanderthals BLOG
ReplyDeleteNeanderthals are an extinct species of the genus Homo, which is shared with us (Homo sapiens). In fact, they are one of our closest relatives; paleontologists have reconstructed and put together various pieces of the DNA puzzle to get a look at our evolution history. Which results in the continuation of the unanswered question of who our last common ancestor with Neanderthals was specifically, but it does give us an average of the date of existence, a range between 800,000 years ago to less than 300,000 (1). A lot of this was accomplished through the study of ancient teeth, like premolars and molars, since these have specific landmarks that are easier to spot and classify and ‘store’ (1). The fossilized tartar on their teeth was proof they consumed vegetables and used bitter-tasting medicinal plants, like chamomile and yarrow; or at least consumed an animal that did (11). Yet it was very informing being able to distinguish the contents of their stomach through the residual in their teeth (11). Not only could that be determined from simply looking deeply into their dental record, but their habits as well. An example would be how they used toothpicks to clean residuals and even to release pain caused by gum disease, which can be backed by even toothpick marks (2)!
This intriguing species was discovered about 150 years ago and most of the information gathered about them was found in the meeting point of Africa and Eurasia and it’s concentrated mainly on the cultural background, their evolution, associated behavior, and material culture (5). Like their common use of stone and bone tools, assymetricality on artifacts, which indicates a majority existence of right-handiness, yet another spooky similarity with us (3). As part of evidence for constant evolution, behavior, and cultural background is the occurrence of burials and placement of marine shell beads and other organic, mineral, and skeletal artifacts placed on top of the burial place (7). This custom clearly shows the advancement of symbolic expression in Neanderthals, which I find quite astonishing.
continued...
ReplyDeleteNeanderthals are so closely related that it is believed that we interbreed, and some evidence was found in Papua New Guinea, inside the DNA of living humans there is an archaic admixture of Neanderthal and Denisova genomes (4). Even recent studies have found that 2-3% of the genome of non-Africans might find its source back to Neanderthals, which most likely happened during the spread out of Africa (10). This hypothesis could easily be proven by testing the populations who mostly obtained the genome, those being Europeans and Asians (10).
Its been hypothesized that due to climate changes and the decrease in productivity throughout MIS 4, or level of Marine isotope stage (warm and cool periods in Earth as results from changes in oxygen combined with data from deep sea core samples), are the reasons for the decline and eventual disappearance of Neanderthals (6). Another explanation would be massive volcanic eruptions, which has been tested through the search for volcanic ash not visible at first sight inside caves (9). In conclusion, scientists have come to believe it was a combination of both volcanic activity and intense climate changes, plus the competition and clear threat posed by more developed indigenous populations (9).
Bibliography:
1. Article-National Geographic, Brian Switek. October 21, 2013. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/10/131021-neanderthal-human-evolution-teeth/
2. Article-National Geographic, Stefan Sirucek. October 23, 2013. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/neanderthal-gums-relieved-by-toothpicks/
3. Book-Natalie T. Uomini, 2011. http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-007-0415-2_14
4. Article-Volume 91, Issue 2, pages 265-274; Fernando L. Mendez, Joseph C. Watkins, and Michael F. Hammer. August 10, 2012. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929712003242
5. Book-Naama Goren-Inbar. 2011. http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-007-0492-3_8#page-1
6. Unknown-volume 30, issues 21-22, Miriam Belmaker and Erella Hovers. October 2011. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027737911100237X
7. Research Article-Veronique Laroulandie, 2011. http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0032856
8. Research Article-Clive Finlayson, Joaquin Rodriguez-Vidal, Francisca Martines-Ruiz, etc. September 14, 2011. http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0024026
9. Article-PNAS, John Lowe, Nick Barton, Paul Albert, etc, June 18, 2012. http://www.pnas.org/content/109/34/13532.short
10. Article-PNAS, Mathias Currat and Laurent Excoffier, August 3, 2011. http://www.pnas.org/content/108/37/15129.short
11. Article-The Observer, Robin McKle, October 20, 2013. http://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/oct/20/neanderthals-diet-plants-herbs-stomachs